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restante declaró que no lo hacen. El valor R² de McFadden,

que evalúa la proporción de variabilidad explicada por el

modelo de regresión logística, resultó ser de 0,386. Se

observó un aumento aproximado de 0,273 puntos en la fluidez

en inglés por cada año adicional en la edad del hijo menor.

Además, la interacción en inglés en casa está

significativamente relacionada con una probabilidad

aproximadamente 2,211 veces mayor de que los niños hablen

inglés con fluidez en comparación con los que no tienen dicha

interacción. Por otra parte, la adquisición del inglés desde el

nacimiento se asocia con una probabilidad aproximadamente

Bilingualism in children born to native

Spanish-speaking teachers of English as

a Foreign Language. A case study in

Ecuador

Bilingüismo en hijos de profesores nativos

hispanohablantes de inglés como lengua

extranjera. Un estudio de caso en Ecuador

,653 veces mayor de que los niños alcancen la fluidez en

inglés. Estas conclusiones tienen implicaciones significativas

para la educación lingüística y subrayan la importancia de

crear entornos adecuados que fomenten una exposición

constante al inglés desde una edad temprana, para cultivar un

dominio mayor y duradero de la lengua.

Rodrigo Aguilar-Romo¹

and Xavier Zhagui-Tuba¹

Languages Institute, University of Cuenca. Av. 12 de Abril s/n,

Campus Central, Cuenca, Ecuador.

Palabras clave: bilingüismo, inglés como lengua

extranjera, profesor-padre, adquisición desde el nacimiento

Email: rodrigo.aguilarr92@ucuenca.edu.ec

Recepción: 2 de septiembre de 2023 - Aceptación: 26 de diciembre de 2023

Publicación: 28 de diciembre de 2023

INTRODUCTION

ABSTRACT

Several myths surround language acquisition—some

more common than others among societies—and they often

may affect this natural process that we all undergo as a

species. One such myth is that any delay in a child's

development in a given area is due to excessive affection. For

instance, it's believed that a child deeply loved by their

parents may take much longer to walk or talk, which sounds

nonsensical. However, another common belief is that

exposure to two languages in infancy results in delayed

language acquisition and utter confusion. Studies have

demonstrated otherwise. Therefore, this work aims to

understand the relationship between the success of Spanish-

speaking teachers of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) in

having their children acquire English from birth and their

failure to do so.

There is insufficient background research on the

bilingual acquisition of teachers' children. Our objective was

to identify exposure-related factors that determine

bilingualism in children born to English teachers. We

conducted a correlational study using snowball sampling,

collecting data from 49 teachers who have at least one child,

through a survey designed specifically for our study. As a

result, 70% of participants stated that all their children speak

English fluently, while the remaining 30% reported that they

do not. The McFadden R² value, which assesses the

proportion of variability explained by the logistic regression

model, was found to be 0.386. We observed an approximate

increase of 0.273 points in English fluency for each additional

year in the age of the youngest child. Moreover, interaction

in English at home is significantly linked to approximately

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

.211 times higher odds of children speaking English fluently

compared to those without such interaction. On the other

hand, acquiring English from birth is associated with

approximately 1.653 times higher odds of children achieving

fluency in English. These findings hold significant

implications for linguistic education and underscore the

importance of creating suitable environments that foster

consistent exposure to English from an early age, to cultivate

higher and lasting mastery of the language.

The context EFL teachers encounter in raising their

children can favor or negatively affect the acquisition of

bilingualism in newborns. For instance, the amount of

language directed at children plays an important role in this

process. A study on this matter introduces another major

factor in developing bilingualism in children: exposure to the

target languages. According to Oller (2010), children's

production of languages correlates with the number of

languages used in direct communication and the number of

languages used in a non-direct manner. In other words, the

greater the exposure to direct interaction with the target

languages, the higher the expected production in children.

However, if the exposure is non-directed or through

overhearing, the production in those languages decreases.

These findings demonstrate how using the target languages in

straightforward communication with children can result in

higher production levels in those languages.

Keywords: bilingualism, English as a foreign language,

teacher-parent, acquisition from birth

RESUMEN

No hay suficientes investigaciones de fondo sobre la

adquisición del bilingüismo en los hijos de profesores.

Nuestro objetivo era identificar los factores relacionados con

la exposición que determinan el bilingüismo en los hijos de

profesores de inglés. Realizamos un estudio correlacional

mediante muestreo de bola de nieve, recogiendo datos de 49

profesores que tienen al menos un hijo, a través de una

encuesta diseñada específicamente para nuestro estudio.

Como resultado, el 70% de los participantes afirmaron que

todos sus hijos hablan inglés con fluidez, mientras que el 30%

The outcome of achieving bilingualism remains the

same, whether it is simultaneous or sequential; however, the

latter demands higher and more conscious effort on the

learner's part. Simultaneous bilinguals are speakers who

acquired the two languages as a result of exposure to them

from birth; sequential bilinguals, on the other hand, learned

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the two languages one after the other. Lai & Wei (2019)

evaluated Krashen’s Monitor Model and referred to the

that the fact English is taught as a foreign language, and not

as a second language since Spanish is the official language in

most Latin American countries, has a direct impact on the

feasibility of children born to English teachers, as well as the

whole population, of becoming bilingual.

distinction Krashen makes between language acquisition and

learning. They state, “The former, acquisition, is a

subconscious and implicit process to develop a feeling

towards the language use by focusing on 'real communication'

of meanings, similar to the acquisition of a mother tongue for

children” (p. 1459). Therefore, this study aims to comprehend

what prevented English teachers from ensuring that their

children acquired, rather than learned, English.

Furthermore, considering the context of most Latin

American countries where Spanish is the official language,

the children of English teachers are likely to be exposed to the

phenomenon of code-switching. This term refers to using two

or more languages within the same conversation. Bilingual

speakers, for instance, may use two different codes

There is similar relevance in understanding what and

how long it takes immigrant children in the United States and

Canada, as Paradis and Jia (2017) put forth, to reach

monolingual native proficiency levels in English and in the

use that Spanish language speakers can make of English as a

foreign language in both academic and professional fields

with opportunities abroad. Therefore, it is proper for EFL

teachers to take advantage of being a bilingual parent who

already possesses English as a tool and ensure that their

children become bilingual from an early age. Additionally,

Nguyen and Winsler (2021) present numerous benefits of

bilingualism, one of which is that early learning of two

languages greatly facilitates the learning of a third language

or more.

(languages) even within the same sentence. In the context of

families where attaining bilingualism is a goal, code-

switching is of paramount importance. Thus, Kremin et al.,

(2022), reflecting on the work of authors such as Comeau et

al., 2003, and Yip & Matthews, 2016, claim that “research on

children’s early productions of code-switching has found that

children code-switch at a similar rate to their parents,

suggesting that parental code-switching may serve as a model

for developing bilinguals” (p. 10). Contrary to the common

belief that such practice causes confusion and limits language

proficiency in children, this statement clarifies that exposure

to two languages leads to attaining bilingualism.

STATE OF THE ART

An extensive search for similar studies revealed only a

few in which English teachers specifically report on their

efforts to achieve simultaneous bilingualism in their children.

In this context, Alarcón and Nieto (2023) conducted a study

in Spain, highlighting the personal and financial efforts of 17

families raising bilingual children for future opportunities.

Nowadays, proficiency in more than one language offers

significant educational and labor market advantages. These

families implemented various bilingual strategies in their

daily lives, evolving into a Family Language Policy (FLP)

that created immersive environments for children to learn the

target language, fostering motivation, self-confidence, and

enjoyment of languages and cultures.

In our globalized world, bilingualism, or even

multilingualism, is not just impressive but increasingly

necessary, offering benefits from social likability to broader

academic and professional opportunities. Nieto and Alarcón

(2023) found that the families in their study deeply believed

in the value of English for their children's future, viewing it

as a vital lingua franca and a sign of responsible parenting.

The study by Nieto and Alarcón (2023) described the

efforts of Spanish families, similar to our research, where at

least one parent was proficient in English. This language,

foreign to their native Spanish and not commonly spoken in

Spain, was used to raise their children. The study

encompassed 16 families with 31 children aged 4 to 18, raised

using either the One-Person-One-Language (OPOL) strategy

or the Time and Place strategy. The latter involves using

English at specific times and places, such as bedtime stories.

Data were collected through interviews employing qualitative

and ethnographic methods. The families were questioned

about their FLP based on Spolsky’s (2009) components:

language beliefs, practices, and management. The families

expressed a belief that the modern world necessitates English

proficiency for their children’s academic and professional

success.

A common term in the United States and Canada for the

children of immigrants, as presented by Paradis and Jia

(2017), is ELLs, which stands for English Language

Learners. These children often speak a minority language as

their L1. As they move with their parents to an English-

speaking country, they learn this new language as their L2. In

contrast, in Spanish-speaking countries, children born to

English teachers who succeed in attaining bilingualism

acquire or learn English as a foreign language. Paradis and

Jia’s study (2017) focuses on individual environmental

factors that affect the long-term outcomes in English as a

second language for these children and how that determines

their ability to catch up with monolingual peers. Such factors

include the quantity and quality of exposure to English

depending, for example, on the language proficiency level of

the main caregivers. This statement means that the children

of EFL teachers should be able to become bilingual despite

facing multiple constraints, given that Spanish is the L1

within their surroundings and exposure tends to be highly

limited.

Additionally, the practices included inside and outside

the household by the families become relevant to

accomplishing the goal of bilingualism. Following King et al.

(2008), Family Language Policy (FLP) studies the interaction

between the caretaker and the child regarding language

management, learning, negotiation, and the development of

bilingualism within families. The roles of families are

highlighted in the objective of developing two or more

languages in a child, as parents can create and control

environments to immerse children in the realistic use of the

English language. It is worth considering in the present study

learning Hypothesis, b) The Monitor Hypothesis, c) The Natural

Order Hypothesis, d) The Input Hypothesis, and e) The Affective

Filter Hypothesis.

Krashen’s Monitor Model “is one of the first comprehensive

theories for the explanation of second language acquisition” (Lai &

Wei, 2019) consisting of five hypotheses: a) The Acquisition-

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Regarding practices, Nieto and Alarcón (2023)

discovered the use of both OPOL and Time and Place

strategies, which facilitate language immersion in real-life

contexts. Another practice involved bilingual siblings, where

older siblings raised in English positively influenced the

younger ones, fostering a unique bond. Concerning language

management, the families reported challenges in maintaining

immersion practices as their children aged and their social

circles expanded, with the native language gaining

prominence. This shift necessitated negotiations regarding

the use of English at home. The authors concluded that

despite challenges, these families’ decision to pursue elective

bilingualism was successful.

environment are fundamental in understanding the impact of

language exposure on bilingualism development. Lastly,

initiating target language acquisition from birth is a crucial

factor that aligns with existing research highlighting the

significance of early exposure to foster natural language

acquisition. The selection of these variables aims to dissect

and comprehend the multifaceted elements contributing to the

acquisition of bilingualism among children of English

language teachers.

Based on the literature reviewed on our topic and the

absence of information about the age of the last child,

interaction in English, and target language acquisition from

birth, we propose the following research questions:

1. What is the percentage of the teachers’ children who

speak English fluently?

Furthermore, Nieto and Alarcón (2023) explain that:

Interestingly enough, while the digital world is an

ally, the social context becomes a threat, and

bilingual practices are usually confined to the home

environment. Some families reported that, when

speaking in English in public, they have been the

focus of criticism by those who consider this child-

rearing as an extravagance. Thus, social censure

seems to have influenced the abandonment of the

practice in some cases, which can be interpreted as

an outcome in connection to the so-called “tall

2. How much do age, interaction in English and

Spanish, and the interaction only in English from

birth contribute to speaking English fluently?

3. What other factors could contribute to explaining

English fluency in the teachers’ children?

METHODOLOGY

The current observational study employs a correlational

research design (Cabrera-Tenecela, 2023; Campbell &

Stanley, 2015). The non-probabilistic sample consists of 49

participants, gathered using the snowball sampling method,

including both high school teachers and university professors.

On average, the participants have 1.94 children (SD = 0.747).

These EFL professors have a minimum of 3.21 years of

teaching experience (SD = 1.01) at the university level. They

were surveyed about their children's fluency in English

relative to their chronological age, whether they spoke

English from birth, and the age of their children. The

statistical analysis was conducted using a binary logistic

regression to determine if the child speaks English fluently,

with responses categorized as 'Yes' or 'No'.

poppy syndrome” phenomenon (p. 147).

The aforementioned circumstance refers to the reaction

that others sometimes have when they perceive someone as

boasting about their success. In the context of native Spanish-

speaking families, it is common for people to react negatively

when these families use a language other than their own with

their children.

The phenomenon of bilingualism in Slovakia was

explored in a study focusing on an English teacher raising her

children through intentional bilingualism. Hurajová (2022)

conducted a qualitative case study using the One-Person-

One-Language (OPOL) strategy, exposing the children to

both Slovak and English. The process involved three stages:

the mother consistently using English, achieving high

interaction levels with her son from ages 3 to 6, and the child's

formal education leading to reduced English usage. The

mother's inconsistency and lack of persistence resulted in the

loss of bilingualism in the first child. The researcher notes

that the first child, at age 15, participated in a Slovak-English

bilingual program. However, using similar strategies with the

second child, a daughter, did not yield the same level of

bilingualism due to the influence of the older brother, who

spoke mostly Slovak. The study concludes that parental

motivation, endurance, the domain of the target language,

time, funds, adherence to strategy, and birth order are crucial

factors influencing bilingualism success.

The data collection process involved

a survey

comprising 15 questions about the experiences of English

language teachers in raising their children and fostering

bilingualism. The survey was validated by two colleagues

with experience in similar research. They suggested

modifications to the terminology of the original

questionnaire, which the authors implemented. Google Forms

was used for administering the survey, which took

approximately 10 minutes to complete. Contact with

participants was established through WhatsApp and email,

and the information was provided with explicit consent, under

the assurance of confidentiality.

A logistic regression analysis, conducted using Jamovi

(The jamovi project, 2023), examined the relationship

between the categorical dependent variable (children's

fluency in English) and independent variables (age of the last

child, interaction in English, and acquisition of the target

language from birth). To validate the use of this model, we

ensured the independence of observations, absence of

multicollinearity, and linearity of independent variables with

the log odds. The resulting coefficients indicated the strength

and direction of the relationships between the independent

In elaborating on our selection of independent variables

–

the age of the last child, interaction in English, and target

language acquisition from birth – it is important to note the

lack of studies regarding them. The age of the last child was

chosen to explore any potential influence of the child's age on

bilingualism attainment, aligning with the Critical Period

Hypothesis (Lenneberg

& Chomsky, 1967) and its

implications for language proficiency. Additionally, the level

and frequency of interaction in English within the familial

Tall poppy syndrome is ¨ a person who is conspicuously successful,

especially one who attracts envious notice or hostility.¨ (Australian

National University, 2017).

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variables and the dependent variable. The p-values associated

with these coefficients were evaluated to determine the

statistical significance of the relationships between the

independent variables and the likelihood of speaking English

fluently. The McFadden R² was employed as a measure of

model fit, indicating the proportion of variability explained

by the independent variables in the context of the logistic

regression.

Figure 3 shows the results of the differences between

children who speak English and those who do not, based on

whether the parent speaks English at home. If they speak

mostly Spanish, the children are consequently not fluent in

English. A representative group of English-speaking children

also received interaction with their parents mostly in English

or only in English.

Figure 3.

RESULTS

How teachers talk to their children at home

The results are presented in two sections; the first

describes the percentage of children who speak English

(CSEF) (Figure 1), followed by the description of the

independent variables such as age (Figure 2), how parents talk

to their children (Figure 3), as well as their opinion of where

they learned or have learned English so far: from home or

school (Figure 4). The second section presents the logistic

regression in which the R² and the contribution of each of the

variables in question are established (Table 1).

Figure 1.

Percentage of children who speak English (CSEF)

Finally, parents were asked whether the children spoke

English as a product of schooling, a combination of schooling

and acquisition from birth, or only acquisition from birth.

Clearly, most of those who speak English did so at home from

birth or combined acquisition from birth and schooling (refer

to Figure 4).

A binary logistic regression model was performed to

expose the explanatory level of each of the three variables

studied, taking fluent English speaking as the dependent

variable. For this purpose, it was verified that there is no

collinearity. Thus, the McFadden R was found to be 0.386,

which suggests that this model explains a moderate

proportion of the variability of the data.

On average the age of the last non-English speaking

child is 6.53 years (SD 3.40 years) and the age of the ones

who do speak English is 14.0 years (SD 8.37 years). Figure 2

illustrates these differences.

Figure 4.

View of where they learned or have learned English so far: from

home or school.

Figure 2.

Age of the teachers’ last child

The results from the logistic regression coefficients are

summarized in Table 1. Concerning the age of the youngest

child, there is an observed increase of approximately 0.273

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points in English fluency for each additional year of the

child's age. The variable indicating whether English is spoken

to them reveals that speaking English to these children

increases their odds of speaking English fluently by about

However, according to the Critical Period Hypothesis, the

child’s age is associated with proficiency in both their first

language (L1) and L2. Acquisition from birth typically occurs

through unconscious input processing, and imitation and

repetition-based output by the child. In contrast, schooling

requires conscious effort and often depends on the child's L1

knowledge, which can be a hindrance. Therefore, acquisition

from birth is a more effective approach to bilingualism.

Whether schooling complements or surpasses early exposure

at home in language acquisition remains unclear, as the

variables surrounding each child are diverse and numerous.

It is important to note the age factor and its relation to

schooling. In our study, formal education (preschool,

primary, and secondary instruction) influenced the

participants' children, leading to higher fluency. Despite age

being a low predictor, it is evident that older age correlates

with higher fluency in the target language, influenced by

formal schooling. There may have been a bias among

participants who perceived older children as more fluent than

younger ones, without considering normal developmental

processes and the impact of formal schooling that older

children have experienced.

.211 times compared to not speaking English to them.

Moreover, when children acquire the ability to speak English

from birth, the likelihood of them speaking English increases

approximately 1.653 times. In summary, speaking English at

home emerges as the strongest predictor in explaining the

fluency level in the target language among these children.

Table 1.

Coefficients model to explain the question Does your child speak

English fluently according to his/her age?

Predictor

Estimator

.92

Constant

-7.187

0.273

2.4580

0.0935

1.0153

0.003

0.004

0.029

Last child age

2.92

Do you speak to

them in English?

.211

2.18

They speak English

because of

acquisition from

birth.

.653

0.7723

2.14

0.032

Although our research has not proven the following

hypothesis, we strongly recommend that future studies

investigate it. We hypothesize a positive correlation between

a language teacher's professional language and the language

they use in parenting. We propose that bilingual individuals,

recognizing the value of multilingualism, might be more

inclined to communicate with their children in the language

they teach. Further research is required to explore this

potential relationship. A language teacher, knowledgeable in

the pedagogy of language teaching, can potentially accelerate

their children's acquisition of a second language (L2). This

acceleration can occur not just by speaking to them in the

target language, but also through applying teaching

techniques. However, we found that most participants in our

study did not practice this, possibly due to shyness or fear of

criticism from relatives, friends, or bystanders when speaking

English to their children in public. They might have preferred

to avoid using the foreign language in public, fearing others

might mistakenly believe it would confuse their children and

hinder their normal first language (L1) acquisition. This

phenomenon, known as the 'tall poppy syndrome,' is a likely

hindrance that may have affected our study's participants.

One limitation of this study is the sample size. A small

number of observations can impact the robustness of the

results and the model's generalizability to a larger population.

In this case, a small sample size (n=49) may lead to imprecise

or biased estimates, affecting the reliability of the

conclusions. Therefore, future studies should consider

expanding the participant pool. Another limitation is that the

model was constructed based on three independent variables

and one dependent variable. Future research should develop

a psychometric scale to enhance the validity and reliability of

these measures and those proposed in prospective studies.

Note: The estimators represent the log odds of 'Do/Does your

children/child speak English? = Yes' versus 'Do/Does your children/child

speak English? = No

DISCUSSION

The findings of our research suggest that early exposure

to two languages in children often leads to natural

bilingualism. The quality of the child's language output is

linked to the proficiency of the caretaker who speaks the

second language (L2) to them. Given that the language used

in these interactions is typically basic, it can be expected that

an English teacher would be proficient enough to teach

English to their children from birth. Therefore, early exposure

to both languages from birth is more likely to ensure

successful acquisition, as demonstrated in our study.

Families intending to adopt bilingualism often apply

approaches they fully understand, though some may do so

without empirical knowledge. In the study by Nieto and

Alarcón (2023), the One-Person-One-Language (OPOL)

strategy was effective. It showed that having one parent speak

one language and the other parent another was sufficient for

the child to become bilingual. Our study is similar, examining

English teachers who, knowingly or unknowingly, applied

OPOL in teaching bilingualism to their children from birth.

However, the success in achieving bilingualism may be

influenced by the participants' intentions in each study.

On one hand, the 17 Spanish families in Alarcón and

Nieto's (2023) study deliberately applied strategies to

facilitate the acquisition of their native language, Spanish,

and English as a lingua franca, aiming to provide their

children with a valuable academic and professional tool. On

the other hand, most participants in our study seemed to rely

on schooling to ensure bilingualism in their children, rather

than early exposure from birth, despite their high interest in

having their children acquire English.

CONCLUSION

Early exposure to English plays a crucial role in the

fluent development of a second language, especially when the

parents are English teachers. For these children,

communication within the family environment, whether in

the second language or their native tongue, might be a key

Additionally, our findings indicate that the age factor is

the least significant explanation for the dependent variable.

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ISSN 2806-5638

predictor of bilingualism. These children possess an

advantage that is not fully utilized by all families: the

opportunity to use English for communication at home. To

date, the One-Person-One-Language (OPOL) strategy has

proven effective in fostering bilingualism from early

childhood. Our findings indicate that the intentions and

strategies employed by the parent-teachers in our study have

a positive impact on successful bilingual development.

However, it should be acknowledged that the school also

contributes, albeit small, yet significantly, to this process.

Therefore, establishing an immersive English-speaking

environment from birth can substantially influence a child's

language development.

catching up with monolinguals. Developmental Science,

0(1), e12433. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12433

Spolsky, B. (2009). Language Management. Cambridge University

Press.

The jamovi project. (2023). Jamovi (Versión 2.4.8). [Computer

Software]. https://www .jamovi.org/

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